TEXTS-USE OF HERBAL MEDICINE IN GHANA

Use of herbal medicine in Ghana

Like other developing countries, Ghana continues to search for more effective and appropriate ways of providing the health needs of its developing populace. Generally, the high cost of Western therapeutic medications and additionally their unavailability to the rural communities has prompted a high interest for herbal medicines [20]. In this regard, intensive efforts are being made to explore plants that might be of therapeutic significance to the Ghanaian community. Several reports cutting across the boundaries of botany, medicine and pharmacy have highlighted the use of different plants alone or in combination therapies for the treatment diseases [21, 22, 23].

Considering the evolving interest in studying traditional systems of healthcare and exploiting the potential of natural products for future drug development, this communication presents a compilation of data on plants with promising anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity with special emphasis on plants found in Ghana. Their pharmacological action, anti-inflammatory or analgesic constituents and possible mechanisms of actions are hereby discussed. It is envisioned that this information will be helpful to the indigenes for their primary healthcare and for researchers, to further identify the active chemical constituents and mechanisms responsible for the analgesic and anti-inflammatory potential of these plants [24].

2. Plants with anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities from Ghana

2.1 Albizia zygia (DC.) J.F. Macbr. (Leguminosae-Mimosoideae)

Albizia zygia is a medium-sized ornamental shade tree widely distributed in secondary forest and semi-deciduous forest zones of West and East Africa. It grows up to about 30 m tall, has a branchless cylindrical bole with a greenish-grey smooth outer bark and an orange-brown fibrous inner bark. It has alternate bipinnately compound leaves and bears oblong flat pods. It is commonly known as the West African walnut and locally called ‘okuro’ in Ghana (Akan). The leaf infusion is used for the treatment of lumbago, fever, waist pain and sexually transmitted infection. The bark decoction is administered to treat respiratory tract disease, malaria fever, constipation and worm infestation. The crushed bark is applied topically to treat yaws, heal wounds and toothache [25].

2.2 Anopyxis klaineana (Pierre) Engl. (Rhizophoraceae)

A. klaineana is a medium sized to large tree found in the evergreen and semi-deciduous forest of tropical Africa. It grows up to about 50 m tall, has a branchless, cylindrical bole with longitudinally fissured greyish-brown outer bark and a thick pale orange inner bark. It has simple leathery, glabrous leaves which occur in whorls of 3–4 and bears greenish-white hairy flowers. A. klaineana is locally traded as ‘kokoti(e)’ in Ghana and ‘bodioa’ in Cote d’Ivoire. The stem bark decoction is used to treat joint pain, gonorrhoea, skin and respiratory tract infection, pneumonia, bronchitis and malaria. Its leaves are also applied as a poultice to heal wounds [28].  The bark is used in traditional medicine. A bark maceration is used to treat gonorrhoea, pounded bark is applied externally against bronchitis, lung complaints and kidney pain and on skin infections and wounds, and a bark preparation is administered as enema to treat stomach-ache.

link:  ANOPYXIS

2.3 Calotropis procera (Ait) f. (Apocynaceae)

C. procera is a medium-large sized bushy shrub which grows on coarse, sandy or alkaline soils of West and East Africa also found in the Indian Ocean islands and the north of South Africa. The plant can be identified by decussate, broadly ovate, leathery leaves and bears purple flowers with erect lobes [31]. It is locally called ‘mpatu-asa’ (Akan) in Ghana. In traditional medicine, the bark decoction is used for the treatment of rheumatism, arthritis, headache and general body pain. The latex from leafy twigs and flowers is used for treating conjunctivitis, nasopharyngeal infection, tooth ache, wound healing, and vermifuge. The root bark decoction is used for treating cutaneous and subcutaneous skin infection and yaws [32, 33].

LINK:  FEEDIPEDIA

2.4 Capparis erythrocarpos Isert (Capparaceae)

C. erythrocarpos is a climbing shrub distributed in the coastal scrubs and inlands of many African countries and commonly referred to as ‘salt bush’. The plant is densely thorny and branched with re-curved hooks, growing up to about 6m in height. Its bears green elliptical leaves, which are alternately arranged [35]. The roots are used in traditional medicine for the management of rheumatism and arthritis. Other plant parts also find use in the treatment of eye and ear infection, fever, epilepsy and as aphrodisiac. The powdered root is used at the Center for Scientific Research in to Plant Medicine (CSRPM), Mampong, Ghana for the management of arthritis [21].

LINK: AFRICAN PLANTS

2.5 Cassia sieberiana D.C. (Caesalpinaceae)

C. sieberiana is a tropical woody shrub found growing in the bushy savannahs and coastal shrubs of many African countries. The plant grows up to about 20 m tall, has a short twisted bole, with a greyish-brown fissured bark. It has spirally arranged paripinnately compound leaves which bear bright yellow flowers and dehiscent pods as fruits. The entire plant is purgative and diuretic. The root decoction and leaf infusions are used as pain reliever in rheumatism and arthritis, for treatment of ear infection, skin disease, malaria fever, gastrointestinal infection, oedema, sexually transmitted infection, as laxative and vermifuge. The boiled and squeezed fresh leaves are applied topically to heal wounds, pleurisy and boils [25, 40].

2.6 Commelina diffusa Burm. f. (Commelinaceae)

C. diffusa is a perennial herb distributed in tropical African countries including Ghana, Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Gabon and Congo. The plant is a smooth and sparsely hairy herb with mucilaginous leaves and creeping stems which ascends above and roots at the nodes. It is commonly called ‘climbing day flower’. The Akans in Ghana fancifully refer to it as ‘Nyame bewu ansa na mawu’ meaning ‘God will die before I die’ alluding to its tenacity to life. In Ghana and Nigeria, the pounded leaves are applied topically to boils and swollen glands and as a rubefacient to relief pain in rheumatism and arthritis. Other reported uses include for the treatment of skin abscess, wound, gonorrhoea, ear infection and for the relief of severe menstrual pain [44].

2.7 Erythrophleum ivorense (A Chev.) (Fabaceae)

E. ivorense is a large tree widely distributed in the evergreen primary and secondary forests of tropical Africa. It grows to about 40 m tall, with a cylindrical bole, sometimes fluted at the base. It is called by names like ‘forest ordeal tree’, ‘red water tree’ and ‘sasswood tree’ in West African countries. Among the Akan tribe in Ghana, E. ivorense is known as ‘potrodum’. The stem-bark and roots are usually employed in the treatment of epilepsy, emesis, pain, oedema, constipation and worm infestation [45].

2.8 Ficus exasperata Vahl (Moraceae)

F. exasperata, commonly known as ‘sand paper tree’, is a deciduous, shrub growing up to about 30 m tall. It has a buttressed bole with a pale grey-green outer bark and creamy-white inner bark which exudes a clear, viscid sap when damaged. It has alternate simple pubescent leaves which are elliptical in shape. In Ghana, it is locally called ‘onyankyerεn’ (Akan), ‘nyadεlε’ (Nzema) or nyadkese (Ga). The plant is used in folk medicine for the treatment of sprain, arthritis, rheumatism, intestinal and stomach infection, high blood pressure, abscesses and respiratory tract disease [47].

2.9 Glyphaea brevis (Spreng) Monachino (Tiliaceae)

G. brevis is a medium sized spreading climber usually found growing in forest re-growths, rocky savannahs and swampy areas of tropical Africa. It possesses straggling sparsely stellate branchlets, which bear ovate-oblong leaves and lemon-yellow flowers. Its fruits are spindle-shaped and brown in colour with irregularly ellipsoid seeds. The leaves are used to treat dyspepsia, gastric ulcer, oedema, pain and worm infestation. The root decoction is used to treat male sexual impotence, constipation, chest pain and gastrointestinal infection [53].

2.10 Haematostaphis barteri Hook. f. (Anarcadiaceae)

H. barteri is a woody plant typical of tropical Africa widely distributed in rocky savanna areas of Ghana, Upper Volta, Nigeria, Cameroon and Sudan. It reaches up to about 8 m high, about 65 cm in girth with a bark that contains a clear gum. It bears characteristic reddish-purple drupes which are edible with an acrid taste [33]. It is commonly called ‘blood plum’ and in the Upper West region of Ghana where it is locally referred to as ‘zimbringa’ (Dagaari). In traditional medicine, the boiled leaves are used to treat malaria. The stem bark decoction is used for the treatment of hepatitis and sleeping sickness, while the roots are used in the treatment of oedema, pain and swelling [56].

2.11 Hilleria latifolia (Lam.) H. Walt. (Phytolaccaceae)

H. latifolia is a woody perennial herb about 2 m tall, with weak spiky hairs on young branches. It has alternate, simple elliptical leaves, bears several whitish-green sepals and a lens-shaped fruit with a thin wrinkled pericarp. In Ghana it is locally called ‘Avegboma’ (Ewe) and ‘Anafranaku’ (Akan-Twi) and used for the treatment of arthritis, rheumatism, oedema, gout, worm infestation, parasitic and viral infection of the skin, respiratory and pulmonary disease including asthma [25, 59].

2.12 Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae)

J. curcas is a shrub or small tree about, 2–5 m tall, with a smooth bark and sparsely lenticellate branches. The leaves are broadly palmate and inflorescences greenish-yellow. At maturity it produces ellipsoidal capsules containing black seeds. The seed oil is used to treat eczema, skin disease and to soothe rheumatic pain. The root powder is topically applied as a paste to treat swelling and inflammatory condition such as gout [63].

2.13 Lannea acida A. Rich (Anacadiaceae)

The name of the genus, Lannea, originates from the Latin word ‘lana’ which translates to ‘wool’ alluding to the densely hairy young plant parts or possibly to the wool on the roots of some Lannea species. The plant occurs in different habitats in Sub-Saharan Africa including Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Niger, and Nigeria. It usually grows in wooded savannah, forest edges, bushed grassland, rocky outcrops, and near rivers on sandy soils. It bears berry-like fruits which occur in large clusters and are consumed either fresh or dried. The fruits have a slightly acidic but pleasant taste. In traditional medicine, L. acida is used for the treatment of inflammatory condition, pain, schistosomiasis, haemorrhoid and toothache [65].

2.14 Newbouldia laevis Seem. (Bignoniaceae)

N. laevis is a shrubby small to medium sized ornamental tree with several vertically ascending stems usually found growing in the wooded savanna and deciduous forests across tropical Africa. The plant has shiny dark green leaves and bears large terminal purple flowers. N. laevis finds use in folk medicine for the treatment of epilepsy, elephantiasis, haemorrhoid, pelvic pain, peptic and skin ulcer, rheumatism and as antidote to snake bite [40].

2.15 Palisota hirsuta K. Schum (Commelinaceae)

P. hirsuta is one of the most commonly used species of Commelinaceae. It is a robust perennial herb with lax inflorescences, lateral branches, purplish flowers and black glossy fruits. It is usually found in lowland rain-forest of West Africa. In Ghana it is commonly called ‘somenini’ or ‘mpentemi’ in Akan, ‘sumbe’ in Ewe and ‘sombenyin’ in Fante languages. Various parts of the plant are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of general body pain, earache, pelvic pain, piles, tooth ache, swelling and wound [70].

2.16 Picralima nitida (Stapf) T. Durand & H. Durand (Apocynaceae)

P. nitida is a medium sized to large tree which reaches up to 35 m in height with a dense crown, a pale yellow, fine grained inner wood and a cylindrical trunk. The leaves are broadly oblong with hard tiny lateral nerves and bear white flowers with ovoid fruits which turn yellow at maturity. P. nitida is widely distributed in the deciduous forests of West and Central Africa. In Ghana, the seeds are locally known as ‘akuama’ (Asante-Akan) or ‘onwema’ (Fante) and are used for the treatment of pain of various aetiologies as well as fever. Other plant parts find use in folk medicine for the treatment of malaria, fever, worm infestation, venereal disease, respiratory tract infection, constipation and jaundice [76].

2.17 Phyllanthus muellerianus (Kuntze) Exell. (Euphorbiaceae)

P. muellerianus is a straggling shrub about 12 m tall with spreading branches and several short axillary shoots dispersed in the deciduous and secondary forests of tropical Africa. It has simple alternate glabrous leaves and clustered whitish-green flowers. The plant bears fleshy six-seeded smooth capsules which are green when young and black at maturity. The fresh twigs are chewed to prevent toothache and also used to treat dysmenorrhea, dropsy, wound, swelling, oedema, tumour, paralysis and epilepsy [80].

2.18 Secamone afzelii (Schult.) K. Schum (Asclepiadaceae)

S. afzelii is a slender creeping woody climber about 12 m long, with dark brown branches which contain whitish latex. Its leaves are pinnately compound with entire margins and exude an odourless white gummy substance with slightly acrid taste when cut. It bears numerous flowers and achene (cypsela) fruits. In West Africa, the leaves are used to treat constipation, pain in rheumatism and arthritis, gastrointestinal discomfort, urinary tract and sexually transmitted infection [84].

2.19 Synedrella nodiflora (Linn.) Gaertn. (Asteraceae)

S. nodiflora is a common weed usually found growing along the banks of rivers, streams and roadsides of tropical African countries. It is an erect branched annual herb with ascending woody stems branching dichotomously from the base. It leaves occur in opposite pairs, elliptic in shape with finely toothed margins and bear small crowded yellow flowers at nodes. The whole plant is boiled in water and drank for the treatment of convulsion, threatened miscarriage, constipation, arthritis and as haemostatic [86].

2.20 Trichilia monadelpha (Thonn) JJ De Wilde (Meliaceae)

T. monadelpha is an evergreen, small to medium-sized tree with a straight cylindrical bole, smooth greyish outer bark and a pale pink inner wood. Its leaves are alternate, imparipinnately compound. It bears greenish yellow flowers and an obovoid 6-seeded dehiscent capsule. It is commonly known as ‘otanduru’ (Akan-Twi) in Ghana and found growing at the river banks near evergreen semi deciduous forests. Various parts of the plant find use in traditional medicine for the treatment of inflammatory condition and neurological disorder such as epilepsy and psychosis [90].

2.21 Vernonia amygdalina Delile. (Compositae)

V. amygdalina is a widely grown shrub in many African countries including Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Togo, Benin, Guinea and Sierra Leone. It reaches up to about 10 m tall and is severally branched with a greyish-brown smooth bark. Its leaves are ovate-elliptical in shape, simple and alternately arranged with minutely toothed margin. It bears a 10-ribbed achene pubescent dark brown to black fruit. Due to the bitterness of its leaves, the plant is called ‘bitter leaf’ in many countries. In Ghana, the Akans refer to it as ‘awonwene’ (Twi) literally meaning ‘bitterness’. The leaves, stem bark and roots are used to treat malaria, fever, worm infestation, skin and nasopharyngeal infection, diarrhoea, dysentery, diabetes and as pain reliever in arthritis and rheumatism [95].

2.22 Wissadula amplissima var. rostrata (Schum. & Thonn.) (Malvaceae)

W. amplissima is an erect, shrubby herb which grows up to 2.5 m tall on rocky and loamy soils of grassland, bushes and forests in tropical Africa. The leaves have entire or slightly toothed margins, densely pubescent on the lower surface but with sparsely stellate hairs on the dark green upper surface. The leaves are used as a poultice to relief spider bite and sting by venomous insects [25, 97].

2.23 Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich. (Annonaceae)

X. aethiopica is a tall evergreen aromatic tree with a smooth greyish-brown bark, severally branched crown and a buttressed bole. Its leaves are coriaceous, green on the upper surface and greenish-brown to orange on the lower surface. It bears small dark brown, cylindrical twisted bean-like aromatic pods, with about 5–8 black seeds per pod. The tree is usually found in lowland rainforests, coastal brackish swamps and deciduous forests of tropical Africa. The fruit is the most important part of the plant and is commonly known as the ‘African pepper’. In Ghana it is locally referred to as ‘hwentia’ (Twi), ‘tso’ (Ewe) and ‘soo’ (Ga). It is used as a flavouring in the preparation of soups and for the treatment of inflammatory conditions such as arthritis, bronchitis, rheumatism, lumbago, headache, neuralgia and colic pain [25].

2.24 Ziziphus abyssinica Hochst Ex A. Rich (Rhamnaceae)

Z. abyssinica is a thorny, semi-deciduous plant, varying in habit from an erect shrub, a climbing plant or a tree with sagging branches that form a heavy, rounded crown. It usually reaches up to about 12 m tall and has a straight bole. It is commonly known as ‘Catch thorn’ in English and ‘larukluror’ among the Sissala people of Ghana. The root and leaves are useful in folk medicine for treatment of pneumonia, tonsillitis, burn wound, chest pain, migraine and as a general pain-killer [108].

The Ghanaian flora provides a potent promising source for new therapeutic interventions for local population. The anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of the crude extracts and fractions of several medicinal plants employed in Ghanaian traditional medicine have been validated in several models. However, the specific bioactive constituents are not yet identified. Therefore further studies to isolate and verify these anti-inflammatory and analgesic compounds are highly recommended. Further evaluation of safety profiles and standardisation of most active plants will add substantial value to the reported bioactivities and make these plants attractive for adaptation to pharmaceutical companies for further development.

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CREDIT:  

https://www.intechopen.com/books/medicinal-plants-use-in-prevention-and-treatment-of-diseases/analgesic-and-anti-inflammatory-effect-of-ghanaian-medicinal-plants